Sufism or tasawwuf, as it is called in Arabic, is generally understood by scholars and Sufis to be the inner, mystical, or psycho-spiritual dimension of Islam. Sufism (Sufism) may be best described as a mystical practice that emphasizes certain unique rituals for guiding spiritual seekers into a direct encounter with God. Muhammad is considered their chief prophet and many consider Sufism to be a mystical brand of Islam. Today, however, many Muslims and non-Muslims believe that Sufism is outside the sphere of Islam. The essence of Sufi practice is quite simple. It is that the Sufi surrenders to God, in love, over and over; which involves embracing with love at each moment and the contents of one's consciousness (one's perceptions, thoughts, and feelings, as well as one's sense of self) is considered as gifts of God or, more precisely, as manifestations of God.
Definition: When asked about Sufism, Junayd said, "Sufism is that you should be with God- -without any attachment."
Ruwaym ibn Ahmad said, "Sufism consists of abandoning oneself to God in accordance with what God wills."
Samnun said, "Sufism is that you should not possess anything nor should anything possess you."
Etymology: Sufism is a difficult term to actually define because its meaning is supposed to have derived from various words, with differing connotations: Bishr ibn al-Harith has said that, "the sufi is he whose heart is sincere towards God." Thus, one of the words from which Sufism is supposed to have derived is safa meaning pure -- this due to the purity of the sufis' heart.
The conventional view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. However, not all sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool.
Others suggest the origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Porch") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Porch"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Mohammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer. They were a group of people who were the devotee of Allah. So, it is a spiritual way of devoting God. Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century author Al-Biruni is that the word, as 'Sufiya', is linked with Sophia, the Greek term for "wisdom" - although for various reasons this derivation is not accepted by many at the present.
Basic belifs: The essence of Being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. This apparent paradox of the relationship of creator and created is the basis of Sufi metaphysics. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of duality, including a conception of an individual self, and to realize the Divine unity.
Sufism: Name and Origin: Sufism is generally believed to have originated among Muslims near Basra in modern Iraq, though there is a history of Sufism in Transoxania dating from shortly after the time of Muhammad. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (or "orders") trace their "chains of transmission" back to Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib; the Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces its origin to caliph Abu Bakr. Worth noting is that the original Islamic scriptures (Qur'an, tafsir Ibn Ishaq ,tafsir al-Tabari) have no mention whatsoever of Sufi traditions or practices.
Some orientalist scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example, Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. According to Louis Massignon: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."
Remembering God or Sufi practices:
Dhikr:Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.
Hadhra:Hadhra is a form of dhikr practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic.
Qawwali: Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Afganistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the Sabri Brothers. Amir Khusro, a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, of the Chishti Order, is credited with inventing Qawwali in the 14th century.
Sama:Sama or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to Sufi practices which can involve music and dance. (In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual.,
Khalwa:Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common.
Struggle With One's Nafs : The behavioral absolutes of the shari'ah (Islamic law) set the outer limits that the Sufi must keep within. But the Sufi struggle with one's nafs puts further curbs on the Sufi's behaviour and consciousness. Usually this struggle is spoken of as having two dimensions: negation (nafy) and affirmation (ithbat), corresponding to the two components of the first shahadah (testification of faith), La ilaha (There is no deity) and illa Allah (except for God). The "negation" can be said to take the form of attempting to control oneself from acting out one's anger or gratifying addictions.
The "affirmation" can be said to take the form of embracing and engaging the presence of God in whatever form it may appear within one's consciousness.
In this regard, the struggle with one's own nafs has been called the greater struggle or greater "holy war" (al-jihad al- akbar) in contrast to the lesser struggle (al-jihad al- asghar), which is against injustice and oppressors in this world. The concept derives from the popular hadith of the Prophet, in which he said to Muslims returning from a battle, "You have returned from the lesser struggle to the greater struggle." And he was asked, "What is the greater struggle?" He answered, "The struggle against one's self (nafs), which is between the two sides of your body." Needless to say, in Sufism these two struggles are mutually reinforcing and occur simultaneously.
In particular, the practice of "engaged surrender" in the "greater" struggle with one's own nafs diminishes certain obstacles in the consciousness of the Sufi, obstacles that--if not stuggled against--will hinder the Sufi's capacity to engage in the "lesser" struggle in their life in the world.
Showing posts with label Philosophy. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Philosophy. Show all posts
Wednesday, October 14, 2009
Rousseau, Theism, Creation and Evolution
Theism
Theism is the belief in the existence of God. According to Theism, God is neither fully immanent nor transcendent; He is both immanent and transcendent. Thus theism is a synthesis of Deism and Pantheism. This is the view of almost all great religions of the majority of religious thinkers and many great philosophers.
According to Hegel, God is both immanent and transcendent in human and lifely being. But according to Martineau God is transcendent from living things. After creation He has given freedom of will to His creatures. But His infinite power and potentialities are not fully exhausted in this finite world.
Criticism: Theism is criticized in the following ways:
Merits: 01. Theism escapes the special disadvantages that attach to deism and pantheism.
02. It is stimulating to man's higher aspirations and struggles for better existence.
Defects: 01. But theism cannot maintain the infinitude of God. If God transcends the finite spirits, He becomes limited
02. Theism seeks to serve man's freedom but its success is doubtful. Because man is not and cannot be absolutely free.
03. Theism cannot solve the problems of Evil.
At last we can say there are different opinions in the regard of God. Theism, Deism and Pantheism are different from of to another. But all of these acknowledge the existence of God.
Creation and Evolution
We have some ideas of the general nature of the world and we shall have more form our ontological considerations. Meanwhile let us try to enter into the mystery of its origin, growth of development.
The question of origin may be said to have two complementary aspects. First, how could the there be a world or any existence at all? Secondly, how could the world come to possess so many kinds of things? Common sense and religious dogma answer the first question by their belief in a supreme being, namely, God. Since God is believed to be eternal, the question in apparently answered. Philosophers do not always take special interest in this question and usually take for granted some ultimate being as eternally there. Sometimes, following religion, this first being is called God; but more often it is called the ultimate reality, the Absolute or simply Nature.
As to the second question, the traditional answer of religion and common sense is the old theory of special creation. Sometimes philosophy also has held a similar view. But the more widely held view in the scientific and philosophical circles is the theory of Evolution.
Rousseau
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He believed that people are not social beings by nature. He stated that people living in a natural condition, isolated and without language are kind and without motive or impulse to hurt one-another. However, he did not invite to go back to natural condition. He believed that laws should express the general will of the people. Any kind of government could be considered legitimate, if social organization was by common consent. Rousseau also have us idea about the development of science and arts. Only science is not good. He suggested that you should mix science with arts. Rousseau was more than a philosopher. As the French Revolution created the sense of brotherhood and equality in the society, Rousseau had profound contribution to humanity.
Theism is the belief in the existence of God. According to Theism, God is neither fully immanent nor transcendent; He is both immanent and transcendent. Thus theism is a synthesis of Deism and Pantheism. This is the view of almost all great religions of the majority of religious thinkers and many great philosophers.
According to Hegel, God is both immanent and transcendent in human and lifely being. But according to Martineau God is transcendent from living things. After creation He has given freedom of will to His creatures. But His infinite power and potentialities are not fully exhausted in this finite world.
Criticism: Theism is criticized in the following ways:
Merits: 01. Theism escapes the special disadvantages that attach to deism and pantheism.
02. It is stimulating to man's higher aspirations and struggles for better existence.
Defects: 01. But theism cannot maintain the infinitude of God. If God transcends the finite spirits, He becomes limited
02. Theism seeks to serve man's freedom but its success is doubtful. Because man is not and cannot be absolutely free.
03. Theism cannot solve the problems of Evil.
At last we can say there are different opinions in the regard of God. Theism, Deism and Pantheism are different from of to another. But all of these acknowledge the existence of God.
Creation and Evolution
We have some ideas of the general nature of the world and we shall have more form our ontological considerations. Meanwhile let us try to enter into the mystery of its origin, growth of development.
The question of origin may be said to have two complementary aspects. First, how could the there be a world or any existence at all? Secondly, how could the world come to possess so many kinds of things? Common sense and religious dogma answer the first question by their belief in a supreme being, namely, God. Since God is believed to be eternal, the question in apparently answered. Philosophers do not always take special interest in this question and usually take for granted some ultimate being as eternally there. Sometimes, following religion, this first being is called God; but more often it is called the ultimate reality, the Absolute or simply Nature.
As to the second question, the traditional answer of religion and common sense is the old theory of special creation. Sometimes philosophy also has held a similar view. But the more widely held view in the scientific and philosophical circles is the theory of Evolution.
Rousseau
………………………….
…………………………
He believed that people are not social beings by nature. He stated that people living in a natural condition, isolated and without language are kind and without motive or impulse to hurt one-another. However, he did not invite to go back to natural condition. He believed that laws should express the general will of the people. Any kind of government could be considered legitimate, if social organization was by common consent. Rousseau also have us idea about the development of science and arts. Only science is not good. He suggested that you should mix science with arts. Rousseau was more than a philosopher. As the French Revolution created the sense of brotherhood and equality in the society, Rousseau had profound contribution to humanity.
Materialism
Materialism is the philosophical position that states anything in material or state of matter. The word comes from Greek word "Materia" that means matter. Materialists particularly deny that human self is a spiritual or in any way non-material entity. They interpret beliefs, thoughts, desires, sensations and other mental states as properties of Material system.
According to Oxford Dictionary, "Materialism is the theory or the belief that only material things exist.” Materialism is a tendency to be more interested in material possession, physical comforts etc. than in spiritual values.
Materialism is a philosophical doctrine consists in affirming that the entire universe including life and mind can be explained by matter-in the only self -existent and ultimate reality. And all things and beings mere derived from matter. Prof. Tyndoll says "Matter contains the promise and potency of al forms of existence, even life and mind". Life is a complex physiochemical force and mind is a function of matter.
The main features of Materialism:
01. It is against spiritualism. Materialists believe in only sense perception. They don't believe in soul, God , Next world, Super-realism etc.
02. Soul has no qualitative difference with matter. Soul is complicated in comparison to the matter.
03. Mind is also originated from the matter. According to modern materialists. mind is the epiphenomenon but matter is the original stuff.
04. The materialists think that religion is merely an imaginative conception. They don't think the existence of God, soul and higher values.
05. Morality has been denied in materialism. The ethical conception is fully dependent upon the freedom.
06. Materialism believes in mechanical evolution of the world with life and mind.
07. It denies the existence of any vital force.
08. Materialism believes in the law of conversation energy.
Epicurus, Hobbes and Democritis are the most famous materialists in the world.
According to Oxford Dictionary, "Materialism is the theory or the belief that only material things exist.” Materialism is a tendency to be more interested in material possession, physical comforts etc. than in spiritual values.
Materialism is a philosophical doctrine consists in affirming that the entire universe including life and mind can be explained by matter-in the only self -existent and ultimate reality. And all things and beings mere derived from matter. Prof. Tyndoll says "Matter contains the promise and potency of al forms of existence, even life and mind". Life is a complex physiochemical force and mind is a function of matter.
The main features of Materialism:
01. It is against spiritualism. Materialists believe in only sense perception. They don't believe in soul, God , Next world, Super-realism etc.
02. Soul has no qualitative difference with matter. Soul is complicated in comparison to the matter.
03. Mind is also originated from the matter. According to modern materialists. mind is the epiphenomenon but matter is the original stuff.
04. The materialists think that religion is merely an imaginative conception. They don't think the existence of God, soul and higher values.
05. Morality has been denied in materialism. The ethical conception is fully dependent upon the freedom.
06. Materialism believes in mechanical evolution of the world with life and mind.
07. It denies the existence of any vital force.
08. Materialism believes in the law of conversation energy.
Epicurus, Hobbes and Democritis are the most famous materialists in the world.
Deism
Deism
Deism is a religious and philosophical belief speaking about God is fully transcendent and external. According to deism, God was alone for a long time. There was no trace of any world at that time. He thought that a new world is needed so he created His new world in a special moment out of nothing. Then he created many necessary forces and laws and send them into this world. These forces began to drive the universe. God is the main and the primary cause of world and these forces and the secondary cause. After that God have many rules and regulations and elements, so that the world could be run well and men could live happily. God left the newly created world and began to live out side of the world.
If there arise any problem in the world, he will come back to the universe by a special act in order to correct the irregularities. He interferes by special act of divine power overcoming the action of natural forces by the introduction , for the emergency, of his own divine force. This force will drive the machine perfectly. If there is no problem , He will not come back. His activities are compared with the activities of the clockmaker. Although the clock is made by the clock maker, it runs independently and is interfered with by the maker only when it goes out of order. After the creation, He leaves the world to itself. He does not look after man's weal and woe, hopes and aspirations. Man himself is responsible for immorality and evil.
Criticism:
01. God is alone, eternal and all in all but He felt necessity to create His companion. So, all there are false conception and unsatisfactory.
02. It seems to remove certain difficulties that usually attach to pantheism. God is not responsible for natural and moral evils because He lives outside of nature. But this is only apparent, Being all powerful, God might have made the world machine so perfect that it could never in wrong.
03. If God is self-sufficient without the world, why did he create it at all? It is a basic question to us.
04. Deism cannot satisfy the religious sentiment which seeks satisfaction in intimate relationship with God. If God has no concern with our moral, struggle, weal, and woe, hopes and aspirations. He is of little botheration of man.
05. Deism simply asserts but cannot prove God. Ediso cannot prove why God should leave the world to itself after creation.
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Deism is a religious and philosophical belief speaking about God is fully transcendent and external. According to deism, God was alone for a long time. There was no trace of any world at that time. He thought that a new world is needed so he created His new world in a special moment out of nothing. Then he created many necessary forces and laws and send them into this world. These forces began to drive the universe. God is the main and the primary cause of world and these forces and the secondary cause. After that God have many rules and regulations and elements, so that the world could be run well and men could live happily. God left the newly created world and began to live out side of the world.
If there arise any problem in the world, he will come back to the universe by a special act in order to correct the irregularities. He interferes by special act of divine power overcoming the action of natural forces by the introduction , for the emergency, of his own divine force. This force will drive the machine perfectly. If there is no problem , He will not come back. His activities are compared with the activities of the clockmaker. Although the clock is made by the clock maker, it runs independently and is interfered with by the maker only when it goes out of order. After the creation, He leaves the world to itself. He does not look after man's weal and woe, hopes and aspirations. Man himself is responsible for immorality and evil.
Criticism:
01. God is alone, eternal and all in all but He felt necessity to create His companion. So, all there are false conception and unsatisfactory.
02. It seems to remove certain difficulties that usually attach to pantheism. God is not responsible for natural and moral evils because He lives outside of nature. But this is only apparent, Being all powerful, God might have made the world machine so perfect that it could never in wrong.
03. If God is self-sufficient without the world, why did he create it at all? It is a basic question to us.
04. Deism cannot satisfy the religious sentiment which seeks satisfaction in intimate relationship with God. If God has no concern with our moral, struggle, weal, and woe, hopes and aspirations. He is of little botheration of man.
05. Deism simply asserts but cannot prove God. Ediso cannot prove why God should leave the world to itself after creation.
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Hinduism
Hinduism, a religious tradition of Indian origin, comprising the beliefs and practices of Hindus. The word Hindu is derived from the river Sindhu, or Indus. Hindu was primarily a geographical term that referred to India or to a region of India (near the Sindhu) as long ago as the 6th century BC. The word Hinduism is an English word of more recent origin. Hinduism entered the English language in the early 19th century to describe the beliefs and practices of those residents of India who had not converted to Islam or Christianity and did not practice Judaism or Zoroastrianism. In other religions the ultimate reality is known as God. Hindus refer to it by many names, but the most common name is Brahman.
In the case of most religions, beliefs and practices come first, and those who subscribe to them are acknowledged as followers. In the case of the Hindu tradition, however, the acknowledgment of Hindus came first, and their beliefs and practices constitute the contents of the religion.Hindus themselves prefer to use the Sanskrit term sanātana dharma for their religious tradition. Sanātana dharma is often translated into English as “eternal tradition” or “eternal religion”.
Origin and History: In many religions truth is delivered or revealed from a divine source and enters the world through a single agent: for example, Abraham in Judaism, Jesus in Christianity, and Muhammad in Islam. These truths are then recorded in scriptures that serve as a source of knowledge of divine wisdom: the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur’an. In the Hindu tradition, by contrast, there is no single revelation or orthodoxy (established doctrine) by which people may achieve knowledge of the divine or lead a life backed by religious law.
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late Neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600BCE). At one time scholars believed that the arrival of the Aryan people in India about 1500 BC represented a critical moment in the history of Hinduism. The Aryans replaced the earlier Harappan culture in the Indus valley, and they are the people described in the Vedas. The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.
Beliefs: Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrine. With Universal acceptance among all denominations prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsara (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from Samsara) and the various Yogas (paths and practices)
Concept of God: Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliers spanning monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, and atheism. It is sometimes reffered to as henotheistic (devotion to a single God while accepting the existence of inferior deities), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variation of beliefs.
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or the soul - the true self of every person, called atman -is eternal. According to the monistic/ pantheisic theologies of Hinduism, this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the spirit. Brahman is described as “The One Without a Second”.The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the atman as the innermost core of one's own self, realizes their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom).Hinduism is originally a polytheistic religion but in the 19th century one theory was arisen that said God is one and takes the share of three Gods in different times and the God is Bishnu.
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva: Aspects of Brahman
Saguna Brahman—that is, Brahman with attributes—generally takes the form of one of three main Hindu deities: Brahma, Vishnu, or Shiva. These personified forms of Brahman correspond to three stages in the cycle of the universe. Brahma corresponds to the creative spirit from which the universe arises. Vishnu corresponds to the force of order that sustains the universe. Shiva corresponds to the force that brings a cycle to an end—destruction acting as a prelude to transformation, leaving pure consciousness from which the universe is reborn after destruction. Other forms of Ishvara widely worshiped by Hindus are Shakti, the female aspect of divinity, and Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity associated with the removal of obstacles.
HINDU RITUALS: Hindus consider all of creation worthy of worship, and thus religious activity in Hinduism takes many forms. Rituals may be performed by the individual, the family, the village, the community or region; at home or in a temple; and frequently or infrequently.
The school of Hindu philosophy called Mimamsa, which is specially concerned with ritual, divides all religious activities in Hinduism into three types: (1) actions that are performed daily, called nitya; (2) actions performed on specific occasions, called naimittika; and (3) actions performed voluntarily according to personal desire, called kamya.
Sacred texts:The Vedas: The four Vedas constitute the most important body of sacred Hindu literature, at least in theory. Other sacred literature, especially the Hindu epics, may be more popular with readers, but the Vedas, written in the ancient Sanskrit language, are the oldest and most respected scriptures. They are separately titled the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, and collectively referred to as the Veda.
Each of the Vedas can be divided into four types of texts, which are roughly chronological in order: mantra or samhita, brahmana, aranyaka, and upanishad. The mantra or samhita portion largely consists of hymns addressed to the various deities. The brahmana texts gather the authoritative utterances of brahmans (those with knowledge of Brahman, the ultimate reality) and describe the rituals, chiefly sacrificial offerings, in which the hymns are employed. The third section consists of aranyakas, or forest texts, presumably composed by sages who sought seclusion in the forests. The last section consists of the Upanishads, philosophical texts that have an air of mystery and secrecy about them.
Ramayana
The Ramayana of Valmiki consists of about 24,000 verses and describes the life of Prince Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu. The author, Valmiki, according to later tradition, belonged to the shudra varna and made his living by robbing travelers.
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata, an epic story of 100,000 verses, is attributed to a sage named Vyasa and considered to be the longest poem in the world.
Movements for Reform: One response to the encounter with Europe was reform. The Bengali scholar Ram Mohan Roy set the tone for reform in the early 19th century. Roy campaigned against medieval or regional Hindu practices that were objectionable in the modern world. He advocated allowing widows to remarry and abolition of the relatively rare practice of sati (self-immolation of a wife after her husband’s death. In 1828 Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj (Society of Brahma) to spread his ideas.
In the case of most religions, beliefs and practices come first, and those who subscribe to them are acknowledged as followers. In the case of the Hindu tradition, however, the acknowledgment of Hindus came first, and their beliefs and practices constitute the contents of the religion.Hindus themselves prefer to use the Sanskrit term sanātana dharma for their religious tradition. Sanātana dharma is often translated into English as “eternal tradition” or “eternal religion”.
Origin and History: In many religions truth is delivered or revealed from a divine source and enters the world through a single agent: for example, Abraham in Judaism, Jesus in Christianity, and Muhammad in Islam. These truths are then recorded in scriptures that serve as a source of knowledge of divine wisdom: the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur’an. In the Hindu tradition, by contrast, there is no single revelation or orthodoxy (established doctrine) by which people may achieve knowledge of the divine or lead a life backed by religious law.
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late Neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600BCE). At one time scholars believed that the arrival of the Aryan people in India about 1500 BC represented a critical moment in the history of Hinduism. The Aryans replaced the earlier Harappan culture in the Indus valley, and they are the people described in the Vedas. The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.
Beliefs: Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrine. With Universal acceptance among all denominations prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsara (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from Samsara) and the various Yogas (paths and practices)
Concept of God: Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliers spanning monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, and atheism. It is sometimes reffered to as henotheistic (devotion to a single God while accepting the existence of inferior deities), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variation of beliefs.
Most Hindus believe that the spirit or the soul - the true self of every person, called atman -is eternal. According to the monistic/ pantheisic theologies of Hinduism, this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the spirit. Brahman is described as “The One Without a Second”.The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the atman as the innermost core of one's own self, realizes their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom).Hinduism is originally a polytheistic religion but in the 19th century one theory was arisen that said God is one and takes the share of three Gods in different times and the God is Bishnu.
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva: Aspects of Brahman
Saguna Brahman—that is, Brahman with attributes—generally takes the form of one of three main Hindu deities: Brahma, Vishnu, or Shiva. These personified forms of Brahman correspond to three stages in the cycle of the universe. Brahma corresponds to the creative spirit from which the universe arises. Vishnu corresponds to the force of order that sustains the universe. Shiva corresponds to the force that brings a cycle to an end—destruction acting as a prelude to transformation, leaving pure consciousness from which the universe is reborn after destruction. Other forms of Ishvara widely worshiped by Hindus are Shakti, the female aspect of divinity, and Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity associated with the removal of obstacles.
HINDU RITUALS: Hindus consider all of creation worthy of worship, and thus religious activity in Hinduism takes many forms. Rituals may be performed by the individual, the family, the village, the community or region; at home or in a temple; and frequently or infrequently.
The school of Hindu philosophy called Mimamsa, which is specially concerned with ritual, divides all religious activities in Hinduism into three types: (1) actions that are performed daily, called nitya; (2) actions performed on specific occasions, called naimittika; and (3) actions performed voluntarily according to personal desire, called kamya.
Sacred texts:The Vedas: The four Vedas constitute the most important body of sacred Hindu literature, at least in theory. Other sacred literature, especially the Hindu epics, may be more popular with readers, but the Vedas, written in the ancient Sanskrit language, are the oldest and most respected scriptures. They are separately titled the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, and collectively referred to as the Veda.
Each of the Vedas can be divided into four types of texts, which are roughly chronological in order: mantra or samhita, brahmana, aranyaka, and upanishad. The mantra or samhita portion largely consists of hymns addressed to the various deities. The brahmana texts gather the authoritative utterances of brahmans (those with knowledge of Brahman, the ultimate reality) and describe the rituals, chiefly sacrificial offerings, in which the hymns are employed. The third section consists of aranyakas, or forest texts, presumably composed by sages who sought seclusion in the forests. The last section consists of the Upanishads, philosophical texts that have an air of mystery and secrecy about them.
Ramayana
The Ramayana of Valmiki consists of about 24,000 verses and describes the life of Prince Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu. The author, Valmiki, according to later tradition, belonged to the shudra varna and made his living by robbing travelers.
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata, an epic story of 100,000 verses, is attributed to a sage named Vyasa and considered to be the longest poem in the world.
Movements for Reform: One response to the encounter with Europe was reform. The Bengali scholar Ram Mohan Roy set the tone for reform in the early 19th century. Roy campaigned against medieval or regional Hindu practices that were objectionable in the modern world. He advocated allowing widows to remarry and abolition of the relatively rare practice of sati (self-immolation of a wife after her husband’s death. In 1828 Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj (Society of Brahma) to spread his ideas.
Materialism and Idealism
Materialism and Idealism are the two contrary doctrines in philosophy. According to the materialistic view, the world is entirely mind-independent, composed only of physical objects and physical interactions. In epistemology, idealism is opposed to realism, the view that mind-independent physical objects exist that can be known through the senses. However, the distinction and relation between materialism and idealism is given below:-
Idealism: Idealism, in philosophy, a theory of reality and of knowledge that attributes to consciousness, or the immaterial mind, a primary role in the constitution of the world. More narrowly, within metaphysics, idealism is the view that all physical objects are mind-dependent and can have no existence apart from a mind that is conscious of them.
Materialism: Materialism is the philosophical position that states anything in material or state of matter. The word comes from Greek word "Materia" that means matter. Materialists particularly deny that human self is a spiritual or in any way non-material entity. They interpret beliefs, thoughts, desires, sensations and other mental states as properties of Material system.
According to Oxford Dictionary, "Materialism is the theory or the belief that only material things exist.” Materialism is a tendency to be more interested in material possession, physical comforts etc. than in spiritual values.
Materialism is a philosophical doctrine consists in affirming that the entire universe including life and mind can be explained by matter-in the only self -existent and ultimate reality. And all things and beings mere derived from matter. Prof. Tyndoll says "Matter contains the promise and potency of al forms of existence, even life and mind". Life is a complex physiochemical force and mind is a function of matter.
Irish philosopher George Berkeley is considered as the founder of idealism, the philosophical view that all physical objects are dependent on the mind for their existence. According to Berkeley's early 18th century writings, an object, such as a table exist only if a mind is perceiving it. Hence, objects are ideas. The observer does not conjure external objects into existence, however; the true ideas of them are caused in the human mind directly by God. Eighteenth century German philosopher Immanuel Kant greatly refined idealism through his critical inquiry into what he believed to be the limits of possible knowledge. Kant held that all that can be known of things is the way in which they appear in themselves. He also held that the fundamental principles of all science are essentially grounded in the constitution of the mind rather than being derived from the external world.
Nineteenth century German philosopher G.W.F Hegel disagreed with Kant's theory concerning the inescapable human ignorance of what things are in themselves, instead arguing for the ultimate intelligibility of all existence. Hegel also maintained that the highest achievements of the human spirit (culture, science, religion, and the state) are not the result of naturally determined processes in the mind, but are conceived and sustained by the dialectical of free, reflective intellect.
After a survey of the historical development of idealism in the West, there formed a general idea of the idealistic metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Three important forms of idealism are generally recognized:
01. Subjective idealism.
02. Transcendental idealism.
03. Objective/ absolute idealism.
Coming to the modern period Descartes declared that only the existence of self is beyond any doubt. This certainly drawn from the proposition "I think, therefore, I exist".
On the other hand Materialism, in philosophy, doctrine that all existence is resolvable into matter or into an attribute or effect of matter. According to this doctrine, matter is the ultimate reality, and the phenomenon of consciousness is explained by physiochemical changes in the nervous system. Materialism is thus the antithesis of idealism, in which the supremacy of mind is affirmed and matter is characterized as an aspect or objectification of mind.
Our knowledge of matter, its properties and the changes that it undergoes, is much greater than our knowledge of mind. Not only this, we are immediately confronted with matter and it is much easier to know its dimensions. The physical sciences reveal that the world of objects constituted of matter as an interconnected system. So far as observation goes, we have perceived most material things existing without mind. In addition to these reasons, there are the facts furnished by physiology and its allied branches, which substantiate the materialist view of reality. A very clear, strong and convincing case for the priority of matter to mind, dependence of manual on the material, is presented by science. Materialism asserts that consciousness is only a property, a product or an effect of matter. It seems impossible invalidate the arguments for materialism from the standpoint of physical sciences.
Materialism is allied to realism, naturalism and evolutionism. Whatever we perceive through our senses cannot be considered as unreal. The world of matter is the real world. As naturalism, it believes in the case of natural laws in the process of development both in the case of Nature as well as human society. Thus, materialism does not accept the existence of a supernatural agency for guiding and regulating the destiny of the world. Materialism does not believe in the concept of creation because existence of God as the creator is denied. The natural world has evolved from earlier stages. Life has also evolved not of matter.
To sun up we can say that Idealists are self centered to some extent and the Materialists are objective by nature. Both of them are extremists in their concerned philosophy. However, the controversy between materialism and idealism makes them complementary to each nether. Therefore, the distinction between these two philosophies may remain in the future, as it was in the past. There is no solution of this problem so far.
Idealism: Idealism, in philosophy, a theory of reality and of knowledge that attributes to consciousness, or the immaterial mind, a primary role in the constitution of the world. More narrowly, within metaphysics, idealism is the view that all physical objects are mind-dependent and can have no existence apart from a mind that is conscious of them.
Materialism: Materialism is the philosophical position that states anything in material or state of matter. The word comes from Greek word "Materia" that means matter. Materialists particularly deny that human self is a spiritual or in any way non-material entity. They interpret beliefs, thoughts, desires, sensations and other mental states as properties of Material system.
According to Oxford Dictionary, "Materialism is the theory or the belief that only material things exist.” Materialism is a tendency to be more interested in material possession, physical comforts etc. than in spiritual values.
Materialism is a philosophical doctrine consists in affirming that the entire universe including life and mind can be explained by matter-in the only self -existent and ultimate reality. And all things and beings mere derived from matter. Prof. Tyndoll says "Matter contains the promise and potency of al forms of existence, even life and mind". Life is a complex physiochemical force and mind is a function of matter.
Irish philosopher George Berkeley is considered as the founder of idealism, the philosophical view that all physical objects are dependent on the mind for their existence. According to Berkeley's early 18th century writings, an object, such as a table exist only if a mind is perceiving it. Hence, objects are ideas. The observer does not conjure external objects into existence, however; the true ideas of them are caused in the human mind directly by God. Eighteenth century German philosopher Immanuel Kant greatly refined idealism through his critical inquiry into what he believed to be the limits of possible knowledge. Kant held that all that can be known of things is the way in which they appear in themselves. He also held that the fundamental principles of all science are essentially grounded in the constitution of the mind rather than being derived from the external world.
Nineteenth century German philosopher G.W.F Hegel disagreed with Kant's theory concerning the inescapable human ignorance of what things are in themselves, instead arguing for the ultimate intelligibility of all existence. Hegel also maintained that the highest achievements of the human spirit (culture, science, religion, and the state) are not the result of naturally determined processes in the mind, but are conceived and sustained by the dialectical of free, reflective intellect.
After a survey of the historical development of idealism in the West, there formed a general idea of the idealistic metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Three important forms of idealism are generally recognized:
01. Subjective idealism.
02. Transcendental idealism.
03. Objective/ absolute idealism.
Coming to the modern period Descartes declared that only the existence of self is beyond any doubt. This certainly drawn from the proposition "I think, therefore, I exist".
On the other hand Materialism, in philosophy, doctrine that all existence is resolvable into matter or into an attribute or effect of matter. According to this doctrine, matter is the ultimate reality, and the phenomenon of consciousness is explained by physiochemical changes in the nervous system. Materialism is thus the antithesis of idealism, in which the supremacy of mind is affirmed and matter is characterized as an aspect or objectification of mind.
Our knowledge of matter, its properties and the changes that it undergoes, is much greater than our knowledge of mind. Not only this, we are immediately confronted with matter and it is much easier to know its dimensions. The physical sciences reveal that the world of objects constituted of matter as an interconnected system. So far as observation goes, we have perceived most material things existing without mind. In addition to these reasons, there are the facts furnished by physiology and its allied branches, which substantiate the materialist view of reality. A very clear, strong and convincing case for the priority of matter to mind, dependence of manual on the material, is presented by science. Materialism asserts that consciousness is only a property, a product or an effect of matter. It seems impossible invalidate the arguments for materialism from the standpoint of physical sciences.
Materialism is allied to realism, naturalism and evolutionism. Whatever we perceive through our senses cannot be considered as unreal. The world of matter is the real world. As naturalism, it believes in the case of natural laws in the process of development both in the case of Nature as well as human society. Thus, materialism does not accept the existence of a supernatural agency for guiding and regulating the destiny of the world. Materialism does not believe in the concept of creation because existence of God as the creator is denied. The natural world has evolved from earlier stages. Life has also evolved not of matter.
To sun up we can say that Idealists are self centered to some extent and the Materialists are objective by nature. Both of them are extremists in their concerned philosophy. However, the controversy between materialism and idealism makes them complementary to each nether. Therefore, the distinction between these two philosophies may remain in the future, as it was in the past. There is no solution of this problem so far.
Buddhism
Buddhism, a major world religion, founded in northeastern India and based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One. Buddhism is not as old as Hinduism but it is the most important next to Hinduism. Originating as a monastic movement within the dominant Brahman tradition of the day, Buddhism quickly developed in a distinctive direction. The Buddha not only rejected significant aspects of Hindu philosophy, but also challenged the authority of the priesthood, denied the validity of the Vedic scriptures, and rejected the sacrificial cult based on them. Moreover, it is a religious philosophy which combines three things. 01. Buddha, the man 02. His thought and 03. His community.
Life of Buddha: No complete biography of the Buddha was compiled until centuries after his death; only fragmentary accounts of his life are found in the earliest sources. Western scholars, however, generally agree on 563 BC as the year of his birth.
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in Lumbinī, Nepal, near the present Nepal-India border, the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom. According to legend, at his birth sages recognized in him the marks of a great man with the potential to become either a sage or the ruler of an empire. The young prince was raised in sheltered luxury, until at the age of 29 he realized how empty his life to this point had been. Renouncing earthly attachments, he embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment, seeking release from the cycle of rebirths. For the next few years he practiced Yoga and adopted a life of radical asceticism.
Eventually he gave up this approach as fruitless and instead adopted a middle path between the life of indulgence and that of self-denial. Sitting under a bo tree, he meditated, rising through a series of higher states of consciousness until he attained the enlightenment for which he had been searching. Once having known this ultimate religious truth, the Buddha underwent a period of intense inner struggle. He began to preach, wandering from place to place, gathering a body of disciples, and organizing them into a monastic community known as the sangha. In this way he spent the rest of his life.
His thoughts and teachings: The Buddha was an oral teacher; he left no written body of thought. His beliefs were codified by later followers. His thought and teachings are the philosophy of Buddhism.
The Four Noble Truths: At the core of the Buddha’s enlightenment was the realization of the Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is suffering. Human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment of death. Even death brings no relief. (2) All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment. (3) Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. (4) The path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-mindedness, and right contemplation. These eight are usually divided into three categories that form the cornerstone of Buddhist faith: morality, wisdom, and samadhi, or concentration.
01. Right views: The right knowledge about the four noble truth is the right views.
02. Right thought: It means freeing mind from all sensuous desires, ill-wills and cruelties.
03. Right speech: To abstain from falsehood, to abstain broo back-biting, to abstain from harsh language and abstain from frivolous talk is called Right speech.
04. Right conduct: unenvy, avoid drug are included with Right conduct.
05. Right livelihood: To lead life in honest way is Right livelihood.
06. Right effort: To reserve the good intention or thinking in mind and to avoid the bad is Right effort.
07. Right mindfulness: To think about the universe, body, mind, sensuousness about the transition of life,
metaphysical words is the Right mindfulness.
08. Right meditation: Attentiveness is the Right meditation. (According to Buddhist view Right meditation will bring mind and mental processes into harmony with all that is eliminating egotism.) It is the last stage of Eightfold paths. Buddha says, "Who is able to achieve the above seven can gain the last one and this is the way to gain Nirvana."
Nirvana: The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is to release from the round of phenomenal existence with its inherent suffering. To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana, an enlightened state in which the fires of greed, hatred, and ignorance have been quenched. Not to be confused with total annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond definition. After attaining nirvana, the enlightened individual may continue to live, until a state of final nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of death.
In theory, the goal of nirvana is attainable by anyone, although it is a realistic goal only for members of the monastic community.
The ethic that leads to nirvana is detached and inner-oriented. It involves cultivating four virtuous attitudes, known as the Palaces of Brahma: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. The ethic that leads to better rebirth, however, is centered on fulfilling one’s duties to society. It involves acts of charity, especially support of the sangha, as well as observance of the five precepts that constitute the basic moral code of Buddhism. The precepts prohibit killing, stealing, harmful language, sexual misbehavior, and the use of intoxicants. By observing these precepts, the three roots of evil—lust, hatred, and delusion—may be overcome.
Formation of Buddhist literature: As Buddha was an oral teacher and he left no written document for his disciples, soon after the death of Buddha, it soon became apparent that a new basis for maintaining the community's unity and purity was needed. The first attempt to write the oral teachings was taken after several centuries of the death of Buddha. There were finally committee to writing about the 1st century BC. The Buddhist canon it known in Pali as the Tripitaka ( Tripitaka in Sanskrit) meaning "Three Baskets," because it consists of three collections of writings: the Sutta Pitaka, a collection of discourses; the Vinaya Pitaka, the code of monastic discipline and the Abhidharma Pitaka, which contains philosophical, psychological and emitsinal discussions and classifications.
Community: After the death of Buddha, Buddhism has been divided into two groups. 01. Mahayana 02. Hinayana.
Mahayana abolishes all distinction between being and non-being, and they believe that if there is no reformation, the doctrine will die. The community of Mahayana is dominant in Tibet, China, Korea and Japan.
In Hinayana, the emphasis lies in the adoration of the Buddha as deity than on those aspects of Buddhahood in which the master is seen as a guide and preceptor. The community of Hinayana is dominant in Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Burma and the Indian sub-continent.
Life of Buddha: No complete biography of the Buddha was compiled until centuries after his death; only fragmentary accounts of his life are found in the earliest sources. Western scholars, however, generally agree on 563 BC as the year of his birth.
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in Lumbinī, Nepal, near the present Nepal-India border, the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom. According to legend, at his birth sages recognized in him the marks of a great man with the potential to become either a sage or the ruler of an empire. The young prince was raised in sheltered luxury, until at the age of 29 he realized how empty his life to this point had been. Renouncing earthly attachments, he embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment, seeking release from the cycle of rebirths. For the next few years he practiced Yoga and adopted a life of radical asceticism.
Eventually he gave up this approach as fruitless and instead adopted a middle path between the life of indulgence and that of self-denial. Sitting under a bo tree, he meditated, rising through a series of higher states of consciousness until he attained the enlightenment for which he had been searching. Once having known this ultimate religious truth, the Buddha underwent a period of intense inner struggle. He began to preach, wandering from place to place, gathering a body of disciples, and organizing them into a monastic community known as the sangha. In this way he spent the rest of his life.
His thoughts and teachings: The Buddha was an oral teacher; he left no written body of thought. His beliefs were codified by later followers. His thought and teachings are the philosophy of Buddhism.
The Four Noble Truths: At the core of the Buddha’s enlightenment was the realization of the Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is suffering. Human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment of death. Even death brings no relief. (2) All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment. (3) Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. (4) The path to the suppression of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-mindedness, and right contemplation. These eight are usually divided into three categories that form the cornerstone of Buddhist faith: morality, wisdom, and samadhi, or concentration.
01. Right views: The right knowledge about the four noble truth is the right views.
02. Right thought: It means freeing mind from all sensuous desires, ill-wills and cruelties.
03. Right speech: To abstain from falsehood, to abstain broo back-biting, to abstain from harsh language and abstain from frivolous talk is called Right speech.
04. Right conduct: unenvy, avoid drug are included with Right conduct.
05. Right livelihood: To lead life in honest way is Right livelihood.
06. Right effort: To reserve the good intention or thinking in mind and to avoid the bad is Right effort.
07. Right mindfulness: To think about the universe, body, mind, sensuousness about the transition of life,
metaphysical words is the Right mindfulness.
08. Right meditation: Attentiveness is the Right meditation. (According to Buddhist view Right meditation will bring mind and mental processes into harmony with all that is eliminating egotism.) It is the last stage of Eightfold paths. Buddha says, "Who is able to achieve the above seven can gain the last one and this is the way to gain Nirvana."
Nirvana: The ultimate goal of the Buddhist path is to release from the round of phenomenal existence with its inherent suffering. To achieve this goal is to attain nirvana, an enlightened state in which the fires of greed, hatred, and ignorance have been quenched. Not to be confused with total annihilation, nirvana is a state of consciousness beyond definition. After attaining nirvana, the enlightened individual may continue to live, until a state of final nirvana (parinirvana) is attained at the moment of death.
In theory, the goal of nirvana is attainable by anyone, although it is a realistic goal only for members of the monastic community.
The ethic that leads to nirvana is detached and inner-oriented. It involves cultivating four virtuous attitudes, known as the Palaces of Brahma: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. The ethic that leads to better rebirth, however, is centered on fulfilling one’s duties to society. It involves acts of charity, especially support of the sangha, as well as observance of the five precepts that constitute the basic moral code of Buddhism. The precepts prohibit killing, stealing, harmful language, sexual misbehavior, and the use of intoxicants. By observing these precepts, the three roots of evil—lust, hatred, and delusion—may be overcome.
Formation of Buddhist literature: As Buddha was an oral teacher and he left no written document for his disciples, soon after the death of Buddha, it soon became apparent that a new basis for maintaining the community's unity and purity was needed. The first attempt to write the oral teachings was taken after several centuries of the death of Buddha. There were finally committee to writing about the 1st century BC. The Buddhist canon it known in Pali as the Tripitaka ( Tripitaka in Sanskrit) meaning "Three Baskets," because it consists of three collections of writings: the Sutta Pitaka, a collection of discourses; the Vinaya Pitaka, the code of monastic discipline and the Abhidharma Pitaka, which contains philosophical, psychological and emitsinal discussions and classifications.
Community: After the death of Buddha, Buddhism has been divided into two groups. 01. Mahayana 02. Hinayana.
Mahayana abolishes all distinction between being and non-being, and they believe that if there is no reformation, the doctrine will die. The community of Mahayana is dominant in Tibet, China, Korea and Japan.
In Hinayana, the emphasis lies in the adoration of the Buddha as deity than on those aspects of Buddhahood in which the master is seen as a guide and preceptor. The community of Hinayana is dominant in Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Burma and the Indian sub-continent.
Tuesday, February 17, 2009
PROOF OF THE EXISTANCE OF GOD
Contents
The Cosmological arguments/The First Cause Argument
The teleological argument/The Argument from Design
Arguments for the existence of God come in many different forms; some draw on history, some on science, some on personal experience, and some on philosophy. Here the arguments for the existence of God are given from philosophical point of view. In philosophy four factors are discussed to demonstrate the existence of God. These are:-
01. The Ontological Argument
02. The Cosmological arguments/The First Cause Argument
03. The teleological argument/The Argument from Design
04. The Moral Argument
These arguments, however, have not played any vital part in converting the not believers to religious belief. However, these things are written below:-
The Ontological Argument: The first purported proof of the existence of God is the ontological argument.
The ontological argument is an argument for God's existence based entirely on reason. According to this argument, there is no need to go out looking for physical evidence of God's existence; we can work out that he exists just by thinking about it. Philosophers call such arguments a priori arguments. St. Anselem, Descartes have initiated this argument.
St. Anselem: He says,
01. We have the previous idea about the Perfect being. This Perfect being is God.
02. We are to emit the Existence in Necessity. This Existence is God.
Descestes: He says:
01. We have previous idea about God. This idea is given by God in our heart.
02. Men are limited. So, for limited men, it is not possible to create other limited things. But God is unlimited. So, for God it is possible to create everything
Criticism:
Only idea can not prove anything.
01. We have previous idea about God, It is illogical
02. Idea about unlimited truth, perfect being etc. is negative.
03. Existence in not a quality but a reality
04. Idea leads us to the existence of thought not to existence of reality.
The Cosmological arguments/The First Cause Argument: The second purported proof of the existence of God is the first cause argument, also called "the cosmological argument". The first cause argument seeks to prove the existence of God from the fact that the universe exists. The universe came into existence at a point in the distant past. Nothing can come into existence, though, unless there is something to bring it into existence; nothing comes from nothing. There must therefore be some being outside of the universe that caused the universe to exist.
In a word the first cause argument (or "cosmological argument") takes the existence of the universe to entail the existence of a being that created it. It does so based on the fact that the universe had a beginning. There must, the first cause argument says, be something that caused that beginning, a first cause of the universe. The argument proceeds by suggesting that if the universe has a beginning, then there must be something outside it that brought it into existence. This being outside the universe, this Creator, the first cause argument tells us, is God.
According to this argument-
01. For every creation, there is a cause. That very cause is God.
02. For every cause, there is previous cause. That previous cause in God.
03. The whole world is probable. So, for a possibility, existence in necessity is possible. But it is possible only for the rigid God.
Criticism:
01. It is not reasonable for the limited men to deal with the unlimited Being because human being is limited but God is unlimited Being.
02. This theory is also based on idea.
The teleological argument/The Argument from Design: The third purported proof of the existence of God is the argument from design, also called "the teleological argument". The argument from design seeks to prove the existence of God from the fact that the universe is ordered.
The universe could have been different from the way that it is in many ways. It could have had different laws of physics; it could have had a different arrangement of planets and stars; it could have begun with a more powerful or a weaker big bang.
Without any purpose nothing is created. This world has a purpose after its creation. This purpose is the purpose of God.
Criticism:
01. To prove the existence by purpose is difficult.
02. To prove the purpose by experience is also difficult.
03. Only action and purpose can not prove the existence of God.
04. There are some regularities and irregularities in the action.
05. There are some actions without purpose.
The Moral Argument: The fourth purported proof of the existence of God is the moral argument. The moral argument seeks to prove the existence of God from the fact that there are moral laws. The moral argument appeals to the existence of moral laws as evidence of God's existence. According to this argument, there couldn't be such a thing as morality without God.
There are some moral senses-
01. Sense of morality: As a social being, we are to follow some senses of morality. This idea of morality is the gift of God.
02. Sense of duty: Sense of duty is a must in the civilized society which is also given by God.
03. Sense of happiness: In our different activities we are to feel the happiness. This happiness is created by God.
04. Martimeaus opinion: He has also given importance on the sense of duty. Because it is logical to show respect and response to the duty for the pleasure of the Supreme Being (God) not for the limited power-human being.
Criticism:
01. Morality is a relative term.
02. Morality has no natural existence
03. It's an imaginative idea.
04. It has no value to the non-believers.
05. Morality leads us to the mind not to the real existence of God.
These proofs could not establish God's existence beyond doubt and faith. however, the arguments could not be termed as valueless. The idea of God being present everywhere and watching human deeds has worked as a great deterrent factor for people who are tempted to harm others for their personal benefits. The different concepts of God have inspired mankind to adopt spiritual life. Even in Islam and Christianity, the notion of God has nourished the religious conscience of Muslims and Christians. Therefore, this notion is indispensable for religion.
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