Error: Identification, Description and Implication

Error: Identification, Description and Implication

An individual language user's deviation from standard language norms in grammar, syntax, pronunciation and punctuation are sometimes referred to as errors. In the case of an error, the person giving the wrong response simply suggests he does not know what the right answer is.

According to Pete Corder, one of the pioneers in the field, "Errors are deviations from correct usages resulting because a learner does not know the relevant language rule yet."

"The condition of having incorrect or false knowledge" (dictionary. Com).

H D Brown (1994) defines error as "noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker reflecting interlanguage competence of the learners". (Principles of language learning and teaching, 3rd edition.)

Edge (1989) says "an error is what a learner can't self correct" (mistakes and correction. London. longman.)

Dulay and Burt (1997) define errors as: "those insane of deviation from the norms." (A guide to the study of meanings-london, Longman.)

Identification of Errors

To identify an error, we need to know what an error is. However, as linguists pay attention to the distinction between an error and a mistake, it is necessary to go over the definition of the two different phenomena.

According to Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1992) a learner makes a mistake when writing or speaking because of lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance. Mistakes can be self-corrected when attention is called. Whereas, an error is the use of linguistic item in a way that a fluent or native speaker of the language regards it as showing faulty or incomplete learning. In other words, it occurs because the learner does not know what is correct, and thus it cannot be self-corrected.

To distinguish between an error and mistake, Ellis (1997) suggests two ways. The first one is to check the consistency of learner's performance. If he sometimes uses the correct form and sometimes the wrong one, it is a mistake. However, if he always uses it incorrectly, it is then an error. The second way is to ask learner to try to correct his own deviant utterance. Where he is unable to, the deviations are errors; where he is successful, they are mistakes.

Description of Errors

A number of different categories for describing errors have been identified. Firstly, Corder (1973) classifies the errors in terms of the difference between the learners' utterance and the reconstructed version. In this way, errors fall into four categories: omission of some required element; addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element; selection of an incorrect element; and misordering of the elements. This categorization can be exemplified as follows:

Omission:

Morphological omission *A strange thing happen to me yesterday.

Syntactical omission * Must say also the names?

Addition:

In morphology * The books is here.

In syntax * The London

In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago.

Selection:

In morphology * My friend is oldest than me.

In syntax * I want that he comes here.

Ordering:

In pronunciation * fignisicant for 'significant'; *prulal for 'plural'

In morphology * get upping for 'getting up'

In syntax * He is a dear to me friend.

In lexicon * key car for 'car key'

An error may vary in magnitude. It can include a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, a sentence or even a paragraph. Due to this fact, errors may also be viewed as being either global or local (cited in Brown, 2000). Global errors hinder communication. They prevent the message from being comprehended as in the example below:

• I like bus but my mother said so not that we must be late for school.

On the other hand, local errors do not prevent the message from being understood because there is usually a minor violation of one segment of a sentence that allows the hearer to guess the intended meaning as follows:

* If I hear from her, I would let you know.

The final group is the two related dimensions of error, domain and extent. Domain is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to be understood, and extent is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied or reordered in order to repair the sentence. This suggestion by Lennon (cited in Brown, 2000) is parallel with Corder's other categorization of overtly and covertly (1973). Overt errors are unquestionably ungrammatical at the sentence level and covert errors are grammatically well- formed at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. For example, "I'm fine, thanks." Is a correct sentence but if it is given as an answer to the question of "How old are you?" it is covertly error.

Pedagogical Implications of Error Analysis

Students' errors have always been of interest and significance to teachers, syllabus designers and test developers. This may lead educators to devise appropriate materials and effective teaching techniques, and constructing tests suitable for different levels and needs of learners. Hence, the implication of error analysis to language teaching can be viewed from the aspect of language teachers and syllabus designers.

Implications for Foreign Language Teachers

Teachers can benefit from the findings of error analysis in many ways. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and what remains for him to learn (Corder, 1987). Following the student's progress, the teacher is able to carry on his studies in accordance with what the learner needs to know and what part of the teaching strategy to chance or reconstruct. Errors are a means of feedback for the teacher reflecting how effective he is in his teaching style and what changes he has to make to get higher performance from his students. Furthermore, errors indicate the teacher the points that needs further attention. Additionally, errors show the way to be treated when their sources are identified correctly.

Implications for Syllabus Designers

Syllabus design of an English teaching course is a very important component of teaching-learning process. There are many factors to be considered to decide on what to teach to what level and age group. At this point, errors are significant data for syllabus designers as they show what items are important to be included or which items needs to be recycled in the syllabus. Keshavarz (1997) maintains that an error-based analysis can give reliable results upon which remedial materials can be constructed.

Student error is inevitable and natural part of student learning. Students' errors are not a negative reflection on the student, but rather a critical pedagogical feedback tool. By correctly interpreting the source of students errors teachers can gain meaningful knowledge about the students learning process and knowledge deficiencies.

Qualities of a Good Test

Qualities of a Good Test

Tests are procedures for measuring ability, knowledge, or performance while testing is the use of tests, or the study of the theory and practice of their use, development, evaluation, etc.

A good test has some characteristics qualities. Traditionally tests have been designed to assign the students some grade for their work. But, ill -conceived traditional tests, as Rivers (1968) observes, "reveal what the students do not know and what they have not been taught." A good test should indicate the student's learning as well as his weaknesses. It also guides the teacher showing the effectiveness of his teaching. According to Rivers- ''each test is not an end in itself, but a means to the ultimate end of effective language mastery.'' Three most important characteristics of a good test are reliability, validity and practicality.

A test is reliable to the extent that it produces the same result under the same circumstances. Harrison (1983) says -"The reliability of a text is its consistency." If a student takes a test at the beginning of a course and again at the end, any improvement o his scope should be the result of differences in his skills and not inaccuracies in the test. According to Harrison [1983], there are three aspects of reliability: "the circumstances in which the test is taken, the way in which it is marked and the uniformity of the assessment it makes."

A test is valid to the extent that it actually tests what it is supposed to test. Rivers (1968) says -"A valid test is one which actually tests what the designer of the test intended it to test." Lado says -"Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure." According to Rivers, for achieving validity of a test, the teacher has to proceed through certain stages. He has to decide the objectives of the course. Then he has to decide which skill he will emphasize in particular tests. Again, testing too many aspects of a skill at a time may be misleading. For example, dictation is am auditory technique that involves writing also. The weakness of it is that a passage can be written accurately from dictation without paying much attention to the meaning of the elements dictated. Rivers suggests, '`Reading comprehension is more validly tested by selection of the correct answer from multiple choice items in the foreign language, on a reading passage.'

A teacher should test one thing at a time. He should identify the various aspects of the skill he is testing and test these one by one. For example, testing of speaking skill should not be conducted through the act of communication, such as oral interview, because it will inevitably test listening comprehension also. Thus the actual topic of tests may be overshadowed by other aspects under the same test.

Moreover, students should be tested on what they have been taught. Rivers observes that objectives and methods of foreign language learning have changed, but certain forms of tests remain the same. As a result, Number of students are being taught one way and tested in another way. For example, a traditional method of testing is passage-translation. This is inappropriate, because presently students have been taught how to use the language without conscious attention to structural manipulation. As Lado (1964) says -"Translation is a special skill different from speaking, listening, reading, and writing."

In the same way, traditional "fill-in-the-blank" type of test is ineffective because the blank can be filled up without knowing the meaning or without knowing their relationship to the whole sentence. Rivers (1968) suggests that a number of the various types of pattern drills can be converted into test items. As she says, students "may be given an outline to expand which has been structure in such a way that he is forced into using certain patterns and grammatical forms which he has practiced."

Sometimes tests are designed in such a way that instead of expecting what the students know, it reflects the expectation of a teacher. Certainly, these tests are not valid. Besides, the method of assessing the total for a test should be an appropriate on. For instance, if am assessment is based on deduction of points for student errors; a student with am incomplete answer may get more points than a student who writes completely, because the student who writer less is not in a position to make so many mistakes.

When a teacher designs a test, he should keep in his mind the image of the particular class for which he is constructing the test. Rivers suggests that the teacher should ask himself the following questions:

1 Are the instructions in the test so clear that no student can possibly misunderstand what he is expected to do?

2. Is there any ambiguity in the test items?

3. Are the tests linguistically useful?

Rivers (1968) also suggests that many aspects of foreign language learning can be tested by objective tests. As she says, "they are especially useful when it is considered desirable to test certain aspects of language skills in isolation..."objective tests are more easily and rapidly corrected. Again, more questions can be answered by students in a test period. Rivers (1968) mentions several types of objective tests such as "true-false", "multiple choice tests", fill in the blank" and "matching tests". If carefully constructed objective torts can be of great help.

A good test must have practicality. As Harrison (1983) says, "The main questions of practicality are administrative." the following questions may be helpful in this regard -

How long will the test take?

What special arrangements have to be made?

Is any equipment needed? etc.

Tests should be as economical as possible in time and in cost.

Thus, a good test must be carefully planned. Some traditional tests do not facilitate language learning. A good test must have validity, reliability and practicality. It must test only what it intends to test. Again, a test should not be puzzling for the students. It should test what the students know, what they have been taught. All these factors demand great care and responsibility on the part of the teacher.

The grammar-translation method

The grammar-translation method

The grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek. As Omaggio comments, this approach reflected "the view of faculty psychologists that mental discipline was essential for strengthening the powers of the mind." (Omaggio 89) Indeed, the emphasis on achieving 'correct' grammar with little regard for the free application and production of speech is at once the greatest asset and greatest drawback to this approach.

As Howatt (1984) says, "the original motivation of this method was reformist." Before this method, the traditional scholastic approach suggested a reading knowledge of foreign language by studying grammar and applying this knowledge to the interpretation of texts. Later, the traditional text was replaced by the use of exemplificatory sentences. At one time the Grammar translation method was called the classical method, since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek.

The major characteristic of the grammar-translation method are-

1. The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or inorder to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. Grammar Translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by apptibation of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. it hence views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language. "The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language" (Stern 1983:455).

2. Reading and writing are the major focus; little no systematic attention is said to sealing or listening.

3. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical Grammar Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items is presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercises are prescribed.

4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method. Earlier approaches to foreign language study used grammar as am age to the study of texts in a foreign language. But this was though to be too difficult for students in secondary schools, and the focus on the sentence was am attempt to make language learning easier.

5. Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation, because of " the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up during the century ,"

6. Grammar is taught deductively- that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are them spatiafe through translation exercises. In most Grammar Translation texts, a syllabus was followed for the sequencing of grammar points throughout a text, and there was am attempt to teach grammar in am organized and systematic way.

7. The students' native language is the medium of instruction. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

8. Having learners get the correct answer is important; the teacher often supplies the correct answer when students don't know it.

9. A paramount/chief use of translation exercises

10. Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.

11. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

12. Little or no attention is paid to pronunciation.

Disadvantage of GTM

Obviously, there are many drawbacks to the grammar-translation approach.-

Worst effect of this method is on pupil's motivation. Because (s)he cannot succeed - leads to frustration, boredom and indiscipline.

. Virtually no class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences, and even less time is spent on oral practice (whether productive or reproductive)

Students may have difficulties "relating" to the language, because the classroom experience keeps them from personalizing it or developing their own style.

In addition, there is often little contextualization of the grammar -- although this of course depends upon the passages chosen and the teacher's own skills.

Text-bound and confined to only reading and writing; not a communicative activity because it involves no oral interaction;

.Not suitable for classroom work because students must do the writing on their own;

Associated with 'different language,' with literary or scientific texts, & not suited to the general needs of language learners.

. Absolute use of mother tongue is undesirable;

. Boring both to do and to correct.

. It gives pupils the wrong idea of what language is and of the relationship between languages.

. Language is seen as a collection or words isolated/independent & there must be a corresponding word in the native tongue for each foreign word he learns.

. The conception of language is neither upheld by linguistics nor based upon any formal psychology.

. Results in a lot ABOUT the language, but doesn't result in the ability to speak the language.

. Academic forms of language presented-grammar explanations are given in meticulous detail.

. Few hypotheses covered.

. Not good for oral proficiency.

. No interaction/communicative practice.

. No cultural awareness.

. There is a concern for accuracy.

. Not proficiency oriented.

Again students are forced to read word by word, and, consequently, rarely focus completely on the message. Thus form, not meaning, gets the focus.

Even when the objective is accuracy, this method is not effective for the students with less intellectual ability. The muddle through the structure and make mistakes repetitively. Thus they build up a cumulative habit of mistakes.

In this method there is no attempt to account for individual variation of the students. As Stephen D Krashen (1982) says, "there is also no attempt to specify when rules are to be used, the implicit assumption being that all students will be able to use all the rules all the time.

Modification the Grammar Translation method dominated foreign language teaching of Europe from the mid eighteenth century to the mid nineteenth century. Since then the increasing opportunities of communication among different nations necessitated oral proficiency in foreign languages. New approaches to language teaching were developed al which stressed on the need of speaking skill. Again, from 1880s the members of the so-called Reform movement revitalized the discipline of linguistics suggesting tat language is primarily a spoken form. Thus, a new approach emerged in the form of the Direct Method.

Differences Between Audio Lingual and Communicative language teaching Methods

Differences Between Audio Lingual and Communicative language teaching Methods

The audio lingual method, or the Army method, or also the New key, is the mode of language instruction based on behaviourist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. There is no explicit grammar instruction everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construction untill they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output.

The communicative language teaching is am approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes communication or interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. The clt was the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with earlier Grammer Translation and Audio Lingual Methods, where students were nott learning enough realistic, socially necessary language. Therefore they became interested in the development of communicative style teaching in the 1970s, focussing on authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another. The goal of clt is of creating communicative competence in the learners. It makes use of real life situations.

The CLT and ALM differ from various aspects. Basic differences as presented by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983) are given below:

Meaning and structure

CLT: Meaning is paramount.

ALM: Attends to structure and form more than meaning.

Ccontext

CLT: Contextualization is a basic premise.

ALM: Language items are not necessarily contextualized.

Learning objectives

CLT: Language learning is learning to communicate.

ALM: Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words.

Goal

CLT: Effective communication is sought.

ALM: Mastery or "overlearning" is sought.

Drilling

CLT: Drilling may occur, but peripherially.

ALM: Drilling is a central technique.

Pronunciation

CLT: Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.

ALM: Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.

Grammatical explanation

CLT: Any device which helps the learners is accepted - varying according to their age, interest, etc.

ALM: Grammatical explanation is avoided.

STAGE OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES

CLT: Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.

ALM: Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises.

Native language

CLT: Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.

ALM: The use of the learners' native language is forbidden.

Translation

CLT: Translation may be used where learners need or benefit from it.

ALM: Translation is forbidden at early levels.

Reading and writing

CLT: Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.

ALM: Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.

Teaching Patterns

CLT: The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate.

ALM: The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system.

Competence

CLT: Communicative competence is the desired goal.

ALM: Linguistic competence is the desired goal.

Language variation

CLT: Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods.

ALM: Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.

Sequencing

CLT: Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest.

ALM: The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.

Error

CLT: Language is created by the individual often through trial and error.

ALM: "Language is habit" so error must be prevented at all costs.

Accuracy

CLT: Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.

ALM: Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal.

Intrinsic motivation

CLT: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.

ALM: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.

Teacher's function

CLT: Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.

ALM: The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict with the theory.

Interaction

CLT: Learners are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings.

ALM: Learners are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.

Learner Laguage

CLT: The teacher cannot know exactly what language the learners will use.

ALM: The teacher is expected to specify the language that learners are to use.

Teachers' responsibility

CLT: The teachers assume a responsibility for determining and responding to learner's language need.

ALM: The teachers have no responsibility to determine learner's language need.

Communicative language teaching often uses a functional-notional syllabus. A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. On the other hand, Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure based approach to language teaching. The starting point is a linguistic syllabus which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of presentation.

Instructional materials:

In communicative language teaching, instructional materials have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. In audio-lingual method, instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner.